Editing Sol
Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.
The edit can be undone. Please check the comparison below to verify that this is what you want to do, and then publish the changes below to finish undoing the edit.
Latest revision | Your text | ||
Line 2: | Line 2: | ||
[[Sol]] (aka The Sun or Helios) is the common name for the star that formed the Sol system, where the planet Earth is located. It is a main sequence star of the spectral class G2V with an age of circa 4.5 billion years and will at least shine for another five billion years. | [[Sol]] (aka The Sun or Helios) is the common name for the star that formed the Sol system, where the planet Earth is located. It is a main sequence star of the spectral class G2V with an age of circa 4.5 billion years and will at least shine for another five billion years. | ||
The '''Sun''' (Sol) is the star at the center of the Solar System. The Earth and other matter (including other planets, asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and Cosmic | The '''Sun''' (Sol) is the star at the center of the Solar System. The Earth and other matter (including other planets, asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and Cosmic dustdust) orbit the Sun which by itself accounts for about 99.8% of the Solar System's mass. Energy from the Sun, in the form of sunlight, supports almost all life on Earth via photosynthesis, and drives the Earth's climate and weather. | ||
The surface of the Sun consists of hydrogen (about 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (about 24% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements, including iron, nickel, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, carbon, neon, calcium, and chromium. | The surface of the Sun consists of hydrogen (about 74% of its mass, or 92% of its volume), helium (about 24% of mass, 7% of volume), and trace quantities of other elements, including iron, nickel, oxygen, silicon, sulfur, magnesium, carbon, neon, calcium, and chromium. | ||
The Sun has a stellar classification spectral class of G2V. ''G2'' means that it has a surface temperature of approximately 5,780 | The Sun has a stellar classification spectral class of G2V. ''G2'' means that it has a surface temperature of approximately 5,780 KelvinK (5,500 CelsiusC) giving it a white color that often, because of atmospheric scattering, appears yellow when seen from the surface of the Earth. This is a subtractive effect, as the Rayleigh scatteringpreferential scattering of shorter wavelength light removes enough violet and blue light, leaving a range of frequencyfrequencies that is perceived by the human eye as yellow. It is this scattering of light at the blue end of the spectrum that gives the surrounding sky its color. When the Sun is low in the sky, even more light is scattered so that the Sun appears orange or even red. | ||
The Sun's spectrum contains spectral | The Sun's spectrum contains spectral linelines of ionized and neutral metals as well as very weak hydrogen lines. The ''V'' (Roman five) in the spectral class indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a main sequence star. This means that it generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. There are more than 100 million G2 class stars in our galaxy. Once regarded as a small and relatively insignificant star, the Sun is now known to be brighter than 85% of the stars in the Milky Waygalaxy, most of which are red dwarfs. | ||
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a distance of approximately 26,000 to 27,000 light-years from the galactic center, moving generally in the direction of Cygnus (constellation)Cygnus and completing one revolution in about 225–250 million years (one Galactic year). Its orbital speed was thought to be 220±20 km/s, but a new estimate gives 251 km/s. This is equivalent to about one light-year every 1,190 years, and about one Astronomical | The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a distance of approximately 26,000 to 27,000 light-years from the galactic center, moving generally in the direction of Cygnus (constellation)Cygnus and completing one revolution in about 225–250 million years (one Galactic year). Its orbital speed was thought to be 220±20 km/s, but a new estimate gives 251 km/s. This is equivalent to about one light-year every 1,190 years, and about one Astronomical unitAU every 7 days. These measurements of galactic distance and speed are as accurate as we can get given our current knowledge, but may change as we learn more. Since our galaxy is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of Hydra (constellation)Hydra with a speed of 550 km/s, the sun's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of Crater (constellation)Crater or Leo (constellation)Leo. | ||
The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud in the low-density Local Bubble zone of diffuse high-temperature gas, in the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, between the larger Perseus and Sagittarius arms of the galaxy. Of the 50 Nearest | The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud in the low-density Local Bubble zone of diffuse high-temperature gas, in the inner rim of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy, between the larger Perseus armPerseus and Sagittarius arms of the galaxy. Of the 50 Nearest starsnearest stellar systems within convert17lykm from the Earth, the Sun ranks 4th in absolute magnitude as a fourth magnitude star (M=4.83). | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
The Sun is a metallicity Population I, or heavy element-rich, In astronomical jargon, the term heavy elements ("metallicity or metals") refers to chemical elements with atomic number greater than 2 all elements except hydrogen and helium. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby | The Sun is a metallicity Population I, or heavy element-rich, In astronomical jargon, the term heavy elements ("metallicity or metals") refers to chemical elements with atomic number greater than 2, i. e. all elements except hydrogen and helium. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high Abundance of the chemical elementsabundance of heavy metalsheavy elements such as gold and uranium in the Solar System relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called metallicity#Population II starsPopulation II (heavy element-poor) stars. These elements could most plausibly have been produced by endergonic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by Nuclear transmutationtransmutation via neutron absorption inside a massive second-generation star. | ||
Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1370 watts per square meter at a distance of one astronomical | Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1370 watts per square meter at a distance of one astronomical unitAU from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuation (electromagnetic radiation)attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surface—closer to 1,000 watts per directly exposed square meter in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. This energy can be harnessed via a variety of natural and synthetic processes—photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical conversion by solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or to do other useful work. The energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was originally converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past. | ||
Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other medical effects such as the production of Vitamin D. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe. | Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other medical effects such as the production of Vitamin D. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe. | ||
Line 23: | Line 23: | ||
Observed from Earth, the Sun's path across the sky varies throughout the year. The shape described by the Sun's position, considered at the same time each day for a complete year, is called the analemma and resembles a figure 8 aligned along a north/south axis. While the most obvious variation in the Sun's apparent position through the year is a north/south swing over 47 degrees of angle (because of the 23.5-degree tilt of the Earth with respect to the Sun), there is an east/west component as well, caused by the acceleration of the Earth as it approaches its perihelion with the Sun, and the reduction in the Earth's speed as it moves away to approach its aphelion. The north/south swing in apparent angle is the main source of seasons on Earth. | Observed from Earth, the Sun's path across the sky varies throughout the year. The shape described by the Sun's position, considered at the same time each day for a complete year, is called the analemma and resembles a figure 8 aligned along a north/south axis. While the most obvious variation in the Sun's apparent position through the year is a north/south swing over 47 degrees of angle (because of the 23.5-degree tilt of the Earth with respect to the Sun), there is an east/west component as well, caused by the acceleration of the Earth as it approaches its perihelion with the Sun, and the reduction in the Earth's speed as it moves away to approach its aphelion. The north/south swing in apparent angle is the main source of seasons on Earth. | ||
A rare optical phenomenon may occur shortly after sunset or before sunrise, known as a green flash. The flash is caused by light from the sun just below the horizon being | A rare optical phenomenon may occur shortly after sunset or before sunrise, known as a green flash. The flash is caused by light from the sun just below the horizon being refractionbent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is Rayleigh scatteringscattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green. | ||
The Sun is a magnetically active star. It supports a strong, changing magnetic field that varies year-to-year and reverses direction about every eleven years around solar maximum. The Sun's magnetic field gives rise to many effects that are collectively called solar activity, including sunspots on the surface of the Sun, solar flares, and variations in solar wind that carry material through the Solar System. Effects of solar activity on Earth include aurora (astronomy)auroras at moderate to high latitudes, and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Solar activity changes the structure of Earth's | The Sun is a magnetically active star. It supports a strong, changing magnetic field that varies year-to-year and reverses direction about every eleven years around solar maximum. The Sun's magnetic field gives rise to many effects that are collectively called solar variationsolar activity, including sunspots on the surface of the Sun, solar flares, and variations in solar wind that carry material through the Solar System. Effects of solar activity on Earth include aurora (astronomy)auroras at moderate to high latitudes, and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System. Solar activity changes the structure of Earth's ionosphereouter atmosphere. | ||
Although it is the nearest star to Earth and has been intensively studied by scientists, many questions about the Sun remain unanswered. Current topics of scientific inquiry include the Sun's regular cycle of sunspot activity, the physics and origin of solar | Although it is the nearest star to Earth and has been intensively studied by scientists, many questions about the Sun remain unanswered. Current topics of scientific inquiry include the Sun's regular cycle of sunspot activity, the physics and origin of solar flareflares and solar prominenceprominences, the magnetic interaction between the chromosphere and the corona, and the origin (propulsion source) of solar wind. | ||
==Location within the galaxy== | ==Location within the galaxy== | ||
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way Galaxy's Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff or the Gould Belt, at a hypothesized distance of 7.62±0.32 | The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way GalaxyMilky Way Galaxy's Orion Arm, in the Local Fluff or the Gould Belt, at a hypothesized distance of 7.62±0.32 Kiloparseckpc from the Galactic Center. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light-years. The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the Galactic Habitable Zone. | ||
The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules (constellation)Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun's orbit around the Galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. | The Apex of the Sun's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun's galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules (constellation)Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun's orbit around the Galaxy is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. | ||
It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit of the galaxy (a ''galactic year''), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun and 1/1250th of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy is approximately 251 km/s. At this speed, it takes around 1400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to travel 1 Astronomical unit or "AU". | It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit of the galaxy (a ''galactic year''), so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun and 1/1250th of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Galaxy is approximately 251 km/s. At this speed, it takes around 1400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 8 days to travel 1 Astronomical unit or "AU". | ||
==Life cycle== | ==Life cycle== | ||
Line 40: | Line 40: | ||
The Sun's current main sequence age, determined using computer models of stellar evolution and nucleocosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.57 billion years. | The Sun's current main sequence age, determined using computer models of stellar evolution and nucleocosmochronology, is thought to be about 4.57 billion years. | ||
It is thought that about 4.59 billion years ago, the rapid collapse of a hydrogen molecular cloud led to the formation of a third generation T Tauri | It is thought that about 4.59 billion years ago, the rapid collapse of a hydrogen molecular cloud led to the formation of a third generation T Tauri starT Tauri Population I star, the Sun. The nascent star assumed a nearly circular orbit about 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy. According to the University Of Hawaii's Astronomical Sciences Department, the Ca-Al-I's (= Ca-Al-rich inclusions) here formed in a proplyd (= protoplanetary disk). The page Protoplanetary disk claims that proplyds are never older than 25 Ma. If 4567 Ma is given for the age of the Earth, then 4567 + 25 = 4592. But 25 Ma is the "maximum age" of proplyds. If proplyds slowly decay from the influence of the Sun and from planetesimal formation, then most Ca-Al-I's must have been formed some time within the range of 0 Ma and 25 Ma after the formation of the proplyd. If the median of Ca-Al-I ages are about 10 Ma after the proplyd formation, then we get 4565 + 10 = 4575, but this figure is created by speculating twice. Since it is assumed that planetary formation occurs over a period of about 100,000 years, that is the date given here | ||
The Sun is about halfway through its main-sequence stellar | The Sun is about halfway through its main sequencemain-sequence stellar evolutionevolution, during which stellar nucleosynthesisnuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than 4 million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation; at this rate, the Sun will have so far converted around 100 Earth-masses of matter into energy. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main sequence star. | ||
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in about 5 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase, its outer layers expanding as the hydrogen fuel in the core is consumed and the core contracts and heats up. Helium fusion will begin when the core temperature reaches around 100 million kelvin and will produce carbon, entering the asymptotic giant branch phase. | The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead, in about 5 billion years, it will enter a red giant phase, its outer layers expanding as the hydrogen fuel in the core is consumed and the core contracts and heats up. Helium fusion will begin when the core temperature reaches around 100 million kelvin and will produce carbon, entering the asymptotic giant branch phase. | ||
Line 61: | Line 61: | ||
9. Prominence | 9. Prominence | ||
The Sun is a yellow main sequence star comprising about 99% of the total mass of the Solar System. It is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 km (6 mi). As the Sun exists in a Plasma (physics) plasmatic state and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This | The Sun is a yellow main sequence star comprising about 99% of the total mass of the Solar System. It is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 km (6 mi). As the Sun exists in a Plasma (physics)plasmatic state and is not solid, it rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This behaviour is known as differential Solar rotationrotation. The period of this ''actual rotation'' is approximately 25 days at the equator and 35 days at the poles. However, due to our constantly changing vantage point from the Earth as it orbits the Sun, the ''apparent rotation'' of the star at its equator is about 28 days. The centrifugal effect of this slow rotation is 18 million times weaker than the surface gravity at the Sun's equator. The tidal effect of the planets is even weaker, and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. | ||
The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, and in its outer parts the density of its gases drops approximately | The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, and in its outer parts the density of its gases drops approximately exponential distributionexponentially with increasing distance from its center. Nevertheless, it has a well-defined interior structure, described below. The Sun's radius is measured from its center to the edge of the photosphere. This is simply the layer above which the gases are too cool or too thin to radiate a significant amount of light, and is therefore the surface most readily visible to the naked eye. The solar core comprises 10 percent of its total volume, but 40 percent of its total mass. | ||
The solar interior is not directly observable, and the Sun itself is opaque to electromagnetic radiation. However, just as seismology uses waves generated by earthquakes to reveal the interior structure of the Earth, the discipline of helioseismology makes use of pressure waves (infrasound) traversing the Sun's interior to measure and visualize the star's inner structure. Computer modeling of the Sun is also used as a theoretical tool to investigate its deeper layers. | The solar interior is not directly observable, and the Sun itself is opaque to electromagnetic radiation. However, just as seismology uses waves generated by earthquakes to reveal the interior structure of the Earth, the discipline of helioseismology makes use of pressure waves (infrasound) traversing the Sun's interior to measure and visualize the star's inner structure. Computer modeling of the Sun is also used as a theoretical tool to investigate its deeper layers. | ||
Line 69: | Line 69: | ||
===Core=== | ===Core=== | ||
The Solar core core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 solar radii. It has a density of up to 150,000 kg/m³ (150 times the density of water on Earth) and a temperature of close to 13,600,000 kelvin (by contrast, the surface of the Sun is around 5,800 kelvin). Recent analysis of Solar and Heliospheric | The Solar core core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 solar radii. It has a density of up to 150,000 kg/m³ (150 times the density of water on Earth) and a temperature of close to 13,600,000 kelvin (by contrast, the surface of the Sun is around 5,800 kelvin). Recent analysis of Solar and Heliospheric ObservatorySOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the rest of the radiative zone. Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion through a series of steps called the Proton-proton chain reactionp–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. The core is the only location in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward from the core. All of the energy produced by fusion in the core must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles. | ||
About 3.4e38 protons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted into helium nuclei every second (out of ~8.9e56 total amount of free protons in the Sun), releasing energy at the matter–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second, 383 Yotta-yottawatts (3.83e26 W) or 9.15e10 megatons of | About 3.4e38 protons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted into helium nuclei every second (out of ~8.9e56 total amount of free protons in the Sun), releasing energy at the matter–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second, 383 Yotta-yottawatts (3.83e26 W) or 9.15e10 megatons of TrinitrotolueneTNT per second. This actually corresponds to a surprisingly low rate of energy production in the Sun's core—about 0.3 W/m³ (watts per cubic meter). This is less power than generated by a candle. Power density is about 6 µW/kg of matter. For comparison, the human body produces heat at approximately the rate 1.2 W/kg, roughly a million times greater per unit mass. The use of plasma with similar parameters for energy production on Earth would be completely impractical—even a modest 1 GW fusion power plant would require about 170 billion tonnes of plasma occupying almost one cubic mile. Hence, terrestrial fusion reactors utilize far higher plasma temperatures than those in Sun's interior. | ||
The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density and temperature, so the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and | The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density and temperature, so the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and thermal expansionexpand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the fusion rate and correcting the Perturbation (astronomy)perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level. | ||
The high-energy photons (gamma rays) released in nuclear | The high-energy photons (gamma rays) released in nuclear fusionfusion reactions are absorbed in only few millimetres of solar plasma and then re-emitted again in random direction (and at slightly lower energy)—so it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the "photon travel time" range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. | ||
After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent "surface" of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were Solar neutrino problem lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was recently resolved through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun in fact emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2/3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor (particle physics)flavor. | After a final trip through the convective outer layer to the transparent "surface" of the photosphere, the photons escape as visible light. Each gamma ray in the Sun's core is converted into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were Solar neutrino problem lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was recently resolved through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun in fact emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing 2/3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor (particle physics)flavor. | ||
===Radiative zone=== | ===Radiative zone=== | ||
From about 0.2 to about 0.7 solar radii, solar material is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the intense heat of the core outward. In this zone there is no thermal convection; while the material grows cooler as altitude increases, this temperature gradient is less than the value of adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection. Heat is transferred by radiation | From about 0.2 to about 0.7 solar radii, solar material is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the intense heat of the core outward. In this zone there is no thermal convection; while the material grows cooler as altitude increases, this temperature gradient is less than the value of adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection. Heat is transferred by radiation—ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. In this way energy makes its way very slowly (see above) outward. | ||
Between the radiative zone and the convection zone is a transition layer called the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear | Between the radiative zone and the convection zone is a transition layer called the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear—a condition where successive vertical layers slide past one another. | ||
===Convection zone=== | ===Convection zone=== | ||
In the Sun's outer layer (down to approximately 70% of the solar radius), the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. As a result, thermal convection occurs as | In the Sun's outer layer (down to approximately 70% of the solar radius), the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. As a result, thermal convection occurs as thermalthermal columns carry hot material to the surface (photosphere) of the Sun. Once the material cools off at the surface, it plunges back downward to the base of the convection zone, to receive more heat from the top of the radiative zone. Convective overshoot is thought to occur at the base of the convection zone, carrying turbulent downflows into the outer layers of the radiative zone. | ||
The thermal columns in the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun, in the form of the granule (solar physics)solar granulation and supergranulation. The turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar interior gives rise to a "small-scale" dynamo that produces magnetic north and south poles all over the surface of the Sun. | The thermal columns in the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun, in the form of the granule (solar physics)solar granulation and supergranulation. The turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar interior gives rise to a "small-scale" dynamo that produces magnetic north and south poles all over the surface of the Sun. | ||
Line 96: | Line 96: | ||
The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opacity (optics)opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. | The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opacity (optics)opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. | ||
The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H<sup>-</sup> ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H<sup>-</sup> ions. The photosphere is actually tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, being slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or ''limb'' of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. Sunlight has approximately a black-body spectrum that indicates its temperature is about 6,000 | The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H<sup>-</sup> ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H<sup>-</sup> ions. The photosphere is actually tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, being slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or ''limb'' of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. Sunlight has approximately a black-body spectrum that indicates its temperature is about 6,000 kelvinK, interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of about 10<sup>23</sup> m<sup>−3</sup> (this is about 1% of the particle density of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). | ||
During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were because of a new element which he dubbed "helium", after the Greek Sun god Helios. It was not until 25 years later that helium was isolated on Earth. | During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were because of a new element which he dubbed "helium", after the Greek Sun god Helios. It was not until 25 years later that helium was isolated on Earth. | ||
Line 102: | Line 102: | ||
===Atmosphere=== | ===Atmosphere=== | ||
During a total solar eclipse, the solar corona can be seen with the naked eye. | During a total solar eclipse, the solar corona can be seen with the naked eye. | ||
The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the ''solar atmosphere''. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the ''temperature minimum'', the chromosphere, the solar transition region, the corona, and the heliosphere. The heliosphere, which may be considered the tenuous outer atmosphere of the Sun, extends outward past the orbit of Pluto to the heliopause, where it forms a sharp shock waveshock front boundary with the interstellar medium. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason why has not been conclusively proven; evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona. | The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the ''solar atmosphere''. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays, and comprise five principal zones: the ''temperature minimum'', the chromosphere, the solar transition regiontransition region, the corona, and the heliosphere. The heliosphere, which may be considered the tenuous outer atmosphere of the Sun, extends outward past the orbit of Pluto to the heliopause, where it forms a sharp shock waveshock front boundary with the interstellar medium. The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason why has not been conclusively proven; evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona. | ||
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,000 | The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere, with a temperature of about 4,000 KelvinK. This part of the Sun is cool enough to support simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected by their absorption spectra. | ||
Above the temperature minimum layer is a thin layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the ''chromosphere'' from the Greek root ''chroma'', meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of solar eclipsetotal eclipses of the Sun. The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 100,000 K near the top. | Above the temperature minimum layer is a thin layer about 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the ''chromosphere'' from the Greek root ''chroma'', meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of solar eclipsetotal eclipses of the Sun. The temperature in the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 100,000 K near the top. | ||
Above the chromosphere is a solar transition region in which the temperature rises rapidly from around 100,000 | Above the chromosphere is a solar transition regiontransition region in which the temperature rises rapidly from around 100,000 kelvinK to coronal temperatures closer to one million K. The increase is because of a phase transition as helium within the region becomes fully ionizationionized by the high temperatures. The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of Halo (optical phenomenon)nimbus around chromospheric features such as Spicule (solar physics)spicules and Solar filamentfilaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from outer spacespace by instruments sensitive to the ultravioletfar ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrumspectrum. | ||
The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona merges smoothly with the solar wind that fills the Solar System and heliosphere. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a | The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona merges smoothly with the solar wind that fills the Solar System and heliosphere. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density of 10<sup>14</sup>–10<sup>16</sup> m<sup>−3</sup>. (Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2e25 m<sup>−3</sup>.) The temperature of the corona is several million kelvin. While no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. | ||
The heliosphere extends from approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU) to the outer fringes of the Solar System. Its inner boundary is defined as the layer in which the flow of the solar wind becomes ''superalfvénic'';that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves. Turbulence and dynamic forces outside this boundary cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a Parker | The heliosphere extends from approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU) to the outer fringes of the Solar System. Its inner boundary is defined as the layer in which the flow of the solar wind becomes ''superalfvénic''—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves.Factdate=September 2008 Turbulence and dynamic forces outside this boundary cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a Parker spiralspiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager programVoyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. Both of the Voyager probes have recorded higher levels of energetic particles as they approach the boundary. | ||
== Chemical composition == | == Chemical composition == | ||
Line 121: | Line 121: | ||
In the inner portions of the Sun, nuclear fusion has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60% helium, with the metal abundance unchanged. Because the interior of the Sun is radiative, not convective (see Structure above), none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere. | In the inner portions of the Sun, nuclear fusion has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60% helium, with the metal abundance unchanged. Because the interior of the Sun is radiative, not convective (see Structure above), none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere. | ||
The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using astronomical | The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using astronomical spectroscopyspectroscopy of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and thus not affected by settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well.<ref name=basu2008 /> | ||
==== Singly- | ==== Singly-ionised iron group elements ==== | ||
In 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron group elements in the Sun. The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly- | In 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron group elements in the Sun. The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly-ionised iron group elements were made available first in the 1960s, and improved oscillator strengths were computed in 1976. In 1978 the abundances of singly-ionised elements of the iron group were derived. | ||
=== Solar and planetary mass fractionation relationship === | === Solar and planetary mass fractionation relationship === | ||
Line 149: | Line 149: | ||
===Solar neutrino problem=== | ===Solar neutrino problem=== | ||
For many years the number of solar electron neutrinos detected on Earth was one third to one half of the number predicted by the standard solar model. This anomalous result was termed the solar neutrino problem. Theories proposed to resolve the problem either tried to reduce the temperature of the Sun's interior to explain the lower neutrino flux, or posited that electron neutrinos could | For many years the number of solar electron neutrinos detected on Earth was one third to one half of the number predicted by the standard solar model. This anomalous result was termed the solar neutrino problem. Theories proposed to resolve the problem either tried to reduce the temperature of the Sun's interior to explain the lower neutrino flux, or posited that electron neutrinos could neutrino oscillationoscillate—that is, change into undetectable tau neutrinotau and muon neutrinos as they traveled between the Sun and the Earth. Several neutrino observatories were built in the 1980s to measure the solar neutrino flux as accurately as possible, including the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory and Kamiokande. Results from these observatories eventually led to the discovery that neutrinos have a very small rest mass and do indeed oscillate. Moreover, in 2001 the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory was able to detect all three types of neutrinos directly, and found that the Sun's ''total'' neutrino emission rate agreed with the Standard Solar Model, although depending on the neutrino energy as few as one-third of the neutrinos seen at Earth are of the electron type. This proportion agrees with that predicted by the MSW effectMikheyev-Smirnov-Wolfenstein effect (also known as the matter effect), which describes neutrino oscillation in matter. Hence, the problem is now resolved. | ||
===Coronal heating problem=== | ===Coronal heating problem=== | ||
The optical surface of the Sun (the photosphere) is known to have a temperature of approximately 6,000 | The optical surface of the Sun (the photosphere) is known to have a temperature of approximately 6,000 KelvinK. Above it lies the solar corona at a temperature of 1,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat Heat conductionconduction from the photosphere. | ||
It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational and magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events. | It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational and magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in the form of heat. The other is magnetic fieldmagnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events. | ||
Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms. One possible candidate to explain coronal heating is continuous flaring at small scales, but this remains an open topic of investigation. | Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms. One possible candidate to explain coronal heating is continuous flaring at small scales, but this remains an open topic of investigation. | ||
Line 160: | Line 160: | ||
===Faint young Sun problem=== | ===Faint young Sun problem=== | ||
Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the | Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the ArcheanArchean period, the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on the Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that the Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and in fact that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. The consensus among scientists is that the young Earth's atmosphere contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and/or ammonia) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the lesser amount of solar energy reaching the planet. | ||
==Magnetic field== | ==Magnetic field== | ||
Line 166: | Line 166: | ||
The heliospheric current sheet extends to the outer reaches of the Solar System, and results from the influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the Plasma (physics)plasma in the interplanetary medium. | The heliospheric current sheet extends to the outer reaches of the Solar System, and results from the influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the Plasma (physics)plasma in the interplanetary medium. | ||
All matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma (physics)plasma because of its high temperatures. This makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (about 35 days near its poles). The | All matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma (physics)plasma because of its high temperatures. This makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (about 35 days near its poles). The solar rotationdifferential rotation of the Sun's latitudes causes its magnetic field lines to become twisted together over time, causing Coronal loopmagnetic field loops to erupt from the Sun's surface and trigger the formation of the Sun's dramatic sunspots and solar prominences (see magnetic reconnection). This twisting action gives rise to the solar dynamo and an 11-year sunspot cyclesolar cycle of magnetic activity as the Sun's magnetic field reverses itself about every 11 years. | ||
The influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the plasma in the interplanetary medium creates the heliospheric current sheet, which separates regions with magnetic fields pointing in different directions. The plasma in the interplanetary medium is also responsible for the strength of the Sun's magnetic field at the orbit of the Earth. The dipole field of the sun is roughly the same as the earth's magnetic field, but it extends over a vastly greater volume of space. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) theory predicts that the motion of a conducting fluid (such as the interplanetary medium) in a magnetic field induces electric currents, which in turn generate magnetic fields, and in this respect it behaves like an MHD dynamo. | The influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the plasma in the interplanetary medium creates the heliospheric current sheet, which separates regions with magnetic fields pointing in different directions. The plasma in the interplanetary medium is also responsible for the strength of the Sun's magnetic field at the orbit of the Earth. If space were a vacuum, then the Sun's 10<sup>-4</sup> tesla (unit)tesla magnetic dipole field would reduce with the cube of the distance to about 10<sup>-11</sup> tesla. But satellite observations show that it is about 100 times greater at around 10<sup>-9</sup> tesla. The dipole field of the sun is roughly the same as the earth's magnetic field, but it extends over a vastly greater volume of space. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) theory predicts that the motion of a conducting fluid (such as the interplanetary medium) in a magnetic field induces electric currents, which in turn generate magnetic fields, and in this respect it behaves like an MHD dynamo. | ||
== History of observation == | == History of observation == | ||
=== Early understanding === | === Early understanding === | ||
Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural phenomenon. | Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural phenomenon. Sun worshipWorship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt, Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo, Chichen ItzaEl Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumn equinoxes. With respect to the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers considered it to be one of the seven planets (Greek ''planetes'', "wanderer"), after which the seven days of the week are named in some languages. | ||
=== Development of scientific understanding === | === Development of scientific understanding === | ||
One of the first people to offer a scientific explanation for the Sun was the Ancient | One of the first people to offer a scientific explanation for the Sun was the Ancient GreeceGreek philosopher Anaxagoras, who reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the PeloponnesePeloponnesus, and not the chariot of Helios. For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and capital punishmentsentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes might have been the first person to have accurately calculated the distance from the Earth to the Sun, in the 3rd century Common EraBCE, as 149 million kilometers, roughly the same as the modern accepted figure. | ||
The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets move was apparently proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of | The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets move was apparently proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of SamosAristarchus and Indians (see Heliocentrism). This view was revived in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus. In the early 17th century, the invention of the telescope permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo made some of the first known Western observations of sunspots and posited that they were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between the Earth and the Sun. Sunspots were also observed since the Han dynasty and Chinese astronomers maintained records of these observations for centuries. In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun. Isaac Newton observed the Sun's light using a prism (optics)prism, and showed that it was made up of light of many colors, while in 1800 William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 1800s saw spectroscopic studies of the Sun advance, and Joseph von Fraunhofer made the first observations of absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. When expanding the spectrum of light from the Sun, there are large number of missing colors can be found. | ||
In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun was a gradually cooling liquid body that was radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism to explain the energy output. Unfortunately the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of several billion years suggested by geology. In 1890 Joseph Norman Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun. | In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun was a gradually cooling liquid body that was radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism to explain the energy output. Unfortunately the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of several billion years suggested by geology. In 1890 Joseph Norman LockyerJoseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun. | ||
Not until 1904 was a substantiated solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass-energy equivalence relation ''E'' = ''mc''². | Not until 1904 was a substantiated solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his mass-energy equivalence relation ''E'' = ''mc''². | ||
In 1920 Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne- | In 1920 Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne-GaposchkinCecilia Payne. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. | ||
Finally, a seminal paper was published in 1957 by Margaret Burbidge, entitled "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". The paper demonstrated convincingly that most of the elements in the universe had been | Finally, a seminal paper was published in 1957 by Margaret Burbidge, entitled "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". The paper demonstrated convincingly that most of the elements in the universe had been nucleosynthesissynthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like our Sun. This revelation stands today as one of the great achievements of science. | ||
=== Solar space missions === | === Solar space missions === | ||
The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA's | The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA's Pioneer programPioneers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of the Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long period of time, transmitting data until 1987. | ||
In the 1970s, Helios probesHelios 1 and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 satellite was a joint U.S.-German probe that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury (planet)Mercury's orbit at perihelion. The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients", and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind. | |||
In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before reentryre-entering the Earth's atmosphere in June 1989. | |||
In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS-41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before | |||
Japan's Yohkoh (''Sunbeam'') satellite, launched in 1991, observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and also demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an solar eclipse eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric reentry in 2005. | Japan's Yohkoh (''Sunbeam'') satellite, launched in 1991, observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and also demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an solar eclipse eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric reentry in 2005. | ||
Line 202: | Line 201: | ||
All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first traveled to Jupiter, to 'slingshot' past the planet into an orbit which would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Serendipitously, it was well-placed to observe the collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes which scattered galactic cosmic rays. | All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first traveled to Jupiter, to 'slingshot' past the planet into an orbit which would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Serendipitously, it was well-placed to observe the collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes which scattered galactic cosmic rays. | ||
Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from astronomical | Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from astronomical spectroscopyspectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis (spacecraft)Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. Genesis returned to Earth in 2004 but was damaged by a crash landing after its parachute failed to deploy on reentry into Earth's atmosphere. Despite severe damage, some usable samples have been recovered from the spacecraft's sample return module and are undergoing analysis. | ||
The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections. | The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind the Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections. |